Research, Policy and Practice
Table 2 The main features of reindeer husbandry (RH) by main cultural types
Criteria | Samoyed type | Chukotka-Koriak type | Tungus type | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location | Kola Peninsula | Western Siberia | North-East of Russia | Iakutia | Eastern Siberia |
Main reindeer herding peoples | Izhma Komi, Nenets and Samies | Nenets and Izhma Komi | Chukchies and Koriaks | Evens | Evenks |
Natural environment | Lowland tundra and northern taiga | Lowland tundra | Mountains and plains in tundra and forest-tundra | Mountains in northern taiga and forest-tundra | Plains and uplands in taiga |
Reindeer pastures | Shortage of pasture in some plots | Deficit of pastures in the main RH region (in the tundra of Iamal-Nenets Okrug) | Winter ice crusts in the Pacific Ocean coastal area. Deficit of pastures during the Soviet time and an abundance of free pastures now | Caring capacity of pastures has always been and remains much larger than reindeer stock number | |
Main traditional activities in the past | Two main types of traditional activities—management of large reindeer herds (Komi and Nenets) and a combination of fishing, reindeer herding and hunting (Samies) | Management of large reindeer herds focused on meat and skins production | Two main types of traditional activities—management of large reindeer herds and sea mammals hinting, with regular exchange of goods between herding and coastal communities (barter trade) | Using reindeer as transport during winter trapping expeditions. In the past, rich herders usually leased their reindeer for transport use | Using reindeer as transport during winter trapping expeditions. Rich herders usually leased their reindeer for transport use. Vagrant life without regular migration ways used to be a characteristic feature |
Trends of reindeer numbers as the result of market reforms (1990s–2000s) | A modest reduction of reindeer number (of about 10%) | Significant increase in reindeer number in the private sector and a small reduction in municipal enterprises | Dramatic fall of the reindeer stock number in the 1990s and its following restoration to a small extent in the 2000s | Dramatic fall of the reindeer stock number in the 1990s and its following restoration to a small extent in the 2000s. In several districts, RH was lost | Graduate decrease in reindeer number since the 1960s when mechanical transport started to replace transport animals in taiga. In several districts, RH was lost |
Trends of reindeer numbers since 2010 | Slight negative trend | Increase in reindeer numbers in four tundra districts in Western Siberia up to 2018 and fluctuations in other areas | Negative trend | Fluctuation in the plains and negative trend in the mountain areas | Fluctuation with a general negative trend |
Methods of nomadic migrations (between summer and winter areas) | The summer (in the tundra) and winter (in the taiga) grazing areas are partially separated by fences. In spring, herders let reindeer graze freely in the tundra. In late autumn, they gather them, drive them in a corral and divide them into herds | Very long seasonal migrations (many hundred kilometres each). All loads including mobile dwellings are moved mainly by reindeer sledges | Moderately long seasonal migrations. Loads are moved mostly by tractors or belt-driver vehicles | Moderately long seasonal migrations. Loads are moved by mechanical transport and/or by reindeer used either in sledges or as pack animals | Short seasonal migrations. Loads are usually moved on pack reindeer or by reindeer sledges (in winter) |
Way of life nowadays | Herders live mainly in houses or cabins built in the tundra and taiga (so-called temporary bases). Most parts of women stay in settlements | High percentage of fully nomadic families with very long migration ways (up to 1000 km) | Part of the herders’ families are fully nomadic, but others get separated: men live in tundra, and women with children live in settlements. Migration paths do not exceed few hundreds of kilometres | Part of the herders’ families are fully nomadic, but others get separated: men live in tundra, and women with children in settlements. Migrations do not exceed few hundreds of kilometres | Herders live partly in permanent camps in taiga and partly in villages. Distance between summer and winter pastures is measured by tens of kilometres |
Herd control | Free grazing of reindeer in summer combined with some monitoring of the herd in winter | Permanent (round-the-clock) herd control using reindeer sledges in summer, sledges and snow-scooters in snow time. The widespread use of herding dogs | Permanent (round-the-clock) herd control on foot in summer, using snow-scooters during snow time | Herd control is combined with free pasturing, using smoking fires and fences during the snowless time | Free pasturing is typical, smoking fires, and fences are often used during the snowless time |
Structure of reindeer herd | High percentage of productive females | Complex herd composition. Significant percentage of castrated bulls used for transportations. Non-productive females are also in demand as transport force | High percentage of productive females | Relatively high percentage of productive females | Significant percentage of castrated bulls used for transportations |
Main sources of income nowadays | Meat production | Meat and velvet antlers production | State (regional) support and meat production | State (regional) support, meat production, subsistence use of reindeer meat and skins | Cash income derived mostly from hunting fur animals (sable) with reindeer used as transport. Subsistence use of reindeer meat and skins to a small extend |
Balance between family-based reindeer husbandry (with privately owned) and reindeer husbandry in enterprises | The proportion of private reindeer is small (about 10%) | During the Soviet period, the percentage of privately owned reindeer had never sunk below 28%. Now, 70% of reindeer are private. The number of private reindeer is still increasing | During the Soviet period, the percentage of privately owned reindeer was 5–6%. At present, nearly all reindeer are under municipal ownership | No reliable data | |
Priorities and adaptive strategies nowadays | Herders work for reindeer herding enterprises for a wage. The Sami occasionally attempt to keep small herds of reindeer for a tourism business | The main aim of herders is to enlarge the family-owned herd and to keep the nomadic way of life. Private reindeer herders are in the opposition to the regional administration | Herders either work for municipal reindeer herding enterprises sponsored by the regional budget or stop herding and move to settlements | Herders combine herding with hunting and fishing | Combining of herding with other activities. Easy transition from herding to non-traditional activities. Mostly, individual patterns of adaptation to changing social environment |
External negative impacts and challenges | Severe disturbance of reindeer by outsiders, including poaching (illegal shooting of domestic reindeer) | Gas and oil industry encroachment, fragmentation by infrastructure | Gold mining encroachment, wild reindeer impact | Wild reindeer impact, local small-scale industrial impact | Local small-scale impact of different kinds of industrial development |