Table 1 A summary of the key characteristics of the four study sites showing the area, rainfall, unique conditions and predominant Maasai section

Area (km²)

8400

390

6500

22,200

Extent of the sampled area in each site

Villages starting from Inkiito and Inchakita adjacent to the Amboseli National Park boundary and extending northwards to Enkii and Olchani Arro

Villages extending from the southern boundary of the Nairobi National Park to the Konza-Kajiado-Magadi railway line (Ilpolosat-Enkirgirri)

Villages starting from Talek near the Maasai Mara National Reserve boundary and extending northwards to Aitong and part of Lemek

The seven villages of Emboreet, Meleleki, Inkung, Katikati, Lolkatial, Lenaitunyo and Esilalei within the Simanjiro Plains area

Average annual rainfall ± 1SD (mm)

350–600

563 ± 218 (range 440–900)

400–1200

747 ± 204 (range 650–900)

Predominant Maasai section

IlKisonko (Iloitokitoki)

IlKaputiei

IlPurko

IlKisonko

Distance from urban areas (km)

232 km from Nairobi City

30–90 km from Nairobi City.

109.5 km from Narok

184.5 km from Arusha

Rural or peri-urban

Rural

Peri-urban. Increasing pressure to sell land, milk and beef and driving diversification.

Rural

Rural

Land tenure

Still mostly under communal (group ranch) system of use and management. Some privately owned land, especially in swamps that are sources of water for wildlife and livestock in dry periods. Debate ongoing on land privatization.

Privately owned land. This site was the first to be sub-divided and privatized in 1986.

Private land with title plus some communally owned land. Mostly privatized from 2000.

The government of Tanzania fully owns land but grants user rights to local villages. Individual families make decisions on the desired land use.

Land use

Pastoralism, cultivation in swamps, mostly by in-migrants who have bought and fenced off farms in swamps and wildlife conservation.

Pastoralism, rapid expansion of urban settlements, industries and markets, extensive fencing, irrigated horticulture, quarrying.

Pastoralism, subsistence and commercial crop cultivation. Wildlife conservation in over 15 wildlife conservancies since 2005–2006.

Pastoralism, subsistence and large-scale cereal cultivation, wildlife conservation, hunting and gemstone mining, which influences livestock, wildlife and cultivation.

Land fragmentation

Moderate, fences are expanding rapidly, especially around farms in the swamps.

Extreme, accelerated by land privatization and rapid land use developments. Has displaced wildlife and caused collapse of extensive pastoralism.

Extreme in some areas due to rapid expansion of fences, cultivation and micro-urban settlements. Has caused collapse of Mara-Loita wildlife migrations and virtual collapse of extensive pastoralism and pastoral commons.

Low, mostly through large-scale commercial agriculture.

Human population density

Relatively sparsely populated with settlements concentrated around water sources.

High in the urban centres but relatively low in the rural areas. Increasing influx of people from other communities mainly interested in settling or buying land.

Relatively low population density but moderate influx of people attracted by economic opportunities created by wildlife tourism and trade.

Relatively low population density and low influx of people from the far-away urban centres.

Income from wildlife conservation

Amboseli park fees, wildlife tourism in conservancies.

Some limited wildlife tourism in small wildlife conservancies.

Premium tourism destination, high park fees. Lucrative tourism income controlled by small groups of investors and Narok County Government.

Hunting fees and some tourism income controlled by the national government.