Table 2 Environmental history of Badha and Gamoji landscapes of Marsabit central

Guyo Goba Bulle

2010 to date (2011)

Shifting to camel keeping and miraa (khat) farming continued

Loss of livestock productivity, invasive plant species, charcoal burning and exploitation of woody species increased

Liban Jaldesa Liban

2002–2009

Some pastoralists start shifting to camel keeping as strategy to drought and also take up opportunity of increasing milk demand for settled population. Miraa (khat) farming further intensified and most farmers abandoned the traditional crops

Productivity of the landscape for perennial grasses and other forage plants declined while invasive plants species such as D. eremophilum and A. mossambicensis were seen to be increasing while preferred grasses declined.

Commercial exploitation of woody plant species such as Terminalia sp. for construction started in addition to charcoal burning.

Livestock milk production was noted to be on decline even during wet season, the concept elders refers to as Horrin damma dabee

Boru Madha Galma

1994–2001

Droughts occurrence becomes frequent and crop failures were experienced quite often. Few farmers started shifting to miraa farming.

Charcoal burning continued targeting ecologically important tree species such as Acacia species.

Overgrazing observed and livestock preferred grass species such as C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus declined

El nino rains eroded soil conservation structures on the farms and soil erosion contributed to a decline in crop production

Boru Guyo Boru

1986–1993

A major drought called the drought of yellow maize (Olla dima suggah) occurred. Pastoralists lost animals and settled to engage in farming and other livelihood strategies. The grazing areas continue to be reduced

The settled destitute pastoralists in the Badha landscape started charcoal burning activities in Gamoji landscape

Jillo Aga Adi

1978–1985

A major drought traditionally called Oola Athu thoot e (the drought of solar eclipse) occurred and most pastoralists lost their animals and became destitute. Catholic mission initiated settlement schemes to settle pastoral drop outs. Several settlement schemes such as Manyatta Jillo settlement scheme, Gabra settlement scheme and Badassa refuge scheme were established. The settlement schemes took up large proportion of grazing lands

A major drought of solar eclipse coupled with increasing number of livestock reduced the productivity of the Gamoji Landscapes and several nomadic families lost their animals and decided to settle in the Badha Landscape

Goba Bulle Dabasso

1970–1977

The farming and settlements slowly took up grazing areas in the Badha landscape

Livestock number increased and continuously grazed the landscape as the Badha landscapes were increasingly put under farming and settlements

Jaldesa Liban Guyo

1962–1969

The farming and settlements slowly took up grazing areas in the Badha landscape

Evidence of overgrazing in some areas

Madha Galma Tore

1954–1961

Colonial government issued directive to reduce livestock number on the Badha landscape as farming and settlements increase. Pastoralists were encouraged to keep few animals. Each pastoral household was allowed to keep 12 animals (8 cows, 2 oxen, 2 sheep or goats). The rest of the animals were taken to the Gamoji landscape. The measure was taken to control overgrazing and conserve the environment

The grazing control instituted by colonial government on the Badha landscapes increased the number of livestock in the Gamoji Landscapes. This was the beginning of major land use change

Guyo Boru Galma

1946–1953

Plots and farms demarcation by colonial government began with increasing settlements and farming activities

The landscapes had sufficient forages plants dominated by preferred grasses such as C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus

Aga Adi Doyo

1938–1945

Settlement and farming activities increased on small scale but large tract of land with sufficient forages remained for livestock grazing

The landscapes were rich in forages plants dominated by preferred grasses such as C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus

Bulle Dabassa Bulle

1930–1937

Minimal farming activities started with influence of Burji farmers and encouragement by colonial government

The landscape had adequate forages plants dominated by preferred grasses such C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus

Arero Gedho Liban

1922–1929

The landscape continued to be used for grazing

The landscape had adequate forages plants dominated by preferred grasses such as C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus

Liban Kuse Liban

1914–1921

The land is largely used for grazing only. Few Burji farmers were later brought from Ethiopia by Colonial government to encourage farming

The landscape had adequate forages plants dominated by preferred grasses such as C. ciliaris and C. plumulosus